Email this article Bystanders’ intentions to help in intimate partner violence and sexual assault situations: A cross-cultural study
Abstract
Gender-based violence (GBV), particularly intimate partner violence (IPV) and non-partner sexual violence (NPSV), is a widespread and preventable problem. This issue affects not only individuals but also communities and entire societies. The bystander approach has shown promise as an intervention to prevent GBV by engaging community members. Using an ecological lens, this cross-cultural study sought to deepen our understanding of how different individual, relational, community, and societal factors may correlate with bystanders’ intentions to help a friend or stranger in situations of IPV and NPSV. The study involved 1,128 university students from Italy (n=333), Brazil (n=303), and Canada (n=492). Results show that Italian university students reported a lower intention to help a friend or stranger. Despite some differences, findings for each subgroup indicate that peer-helping norms, bystander self-efficacy in dealing with violence, and knowledge/training about GBV were crucial factors associated with intentions to help a friend (i.e., the first and second variables) or a stranger (i.e., the first and third variables). These data have important implications for bystander preventive programs. They should make individuals aware of the correlation between the peer-helping norms and their intentions to help in GBV situations to develop responsible and competent student communities toward GBV. This prevention strategy should also provide knowledge about GBV and build skills and self-efficacy for coping with violence suffered or perpetrated by a friend or stranger.
References
Austin, M. J. M., Dardis, C. M., Wilson, M. S., Gidycz, C. A., & Berkowitz, A. D. (2016). Predictors of sexual assault–specific prosocial bystander behavior and intentions: A prospective analysis. Violence Against Women, 22(1), 90–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215597790
Bailly, N., & Ilharragorry-Devaux, M. L. (2011). Adaptation et validation en langue Française d'une échelle de prise de décision. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 43(3), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021031
Banyard, V. L. (2008). Measurement and correlates of prosocial bystander behavior: The case of interpersonal violence. Violence and Victims, 23(1), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.1.83
Banyard, V. L. (2011). Who will help prevent sexual violence: Creating an ecological model of bystander intervention. Psychology of Violence, 1(3), 216–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023739
Banyard, V. L. (2015). Toward the next generation of bystander prevention of sexual and relationship violence: Action coils to engage communities. Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23171-6
Banyard, V. L., & Moynihan, M. M. (2011). Variation in bystander behavior related to sexual and intimate partner violence prevention: Correlates in a sample of college students. Psychology of Violence, 1(4), 287–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023544
Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., Cares, A. C., & Warner, R. (2014). How do we know if it works? Measuring outcomes in bystander-focused abuse prevention on campuses. Psychology of Violence, 4(1), 101-115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033470
Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., & Moynihan, M. M. (2004). Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(1), 61-79. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10078
Banyard, V. L., Rizzo, A. J., Bencosme, Y., Cares, A. C., & Moynihan, M. M. (2021). How community and peer perceptions promote college students’ pro-social bystander actions to prevent sexual violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7-8), 3855–3879. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518777557
Banyard, V., Weber, M. C., Grych, J., & Hamby, S. (2016). WHERE ARE THE HELPFUL BYSTANDERS? ECOLOGICAL NICHE AND VICTIMS’PERCEPTIONS OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(2), 214-231. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21760
Basile, K.C., DeGue, S., Jones, K., Freire, K., Dills, J., Smith, S.G., Raiford, J.L. (2016). STOP SV: A Technical Package to Prevent Sexual Violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Beeble, M. L., Post, L. A., Bybee, D., & Sullivan, C. M. (2008). Factors related to willingness to help survivors of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(12), 1713–1729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314333
Belknap, J., & Sharma, N. (2014). The significant frequency and impact of stealth (nonviolent) gender-based abuse among college women. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(3), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014520725
Bell, S.C., Coker, A.L., & Clear, E.R. (2019). Bystander Program Effectiveness: A Review of the Evidence in Educational Settings (2007–2018). In W. T. O’Donohue & P. A. Schewe (eds), Handbook of Sexual Assault and Sexual Assault Prevention (pp 433–450). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_26
Bennett, S., & Banyard, V. L. (2016). Do friends really help friends? The effect of relational factors and perceived severity on bystander perception of sexual violence. Psychology of Violence, 6(1), 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037708
Brislin R.W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185-216. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513
Bronfenbrenner, U. (Ed.). (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Sage Publications Ltd.
Brown, A. L., Banyard, V. L., & Moynihan, M. M. (2014). College students as helpful bystanders against sexual violence: Gender, race, and year in college moderate the impact of perceived peer norms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 350–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314526855
Burn, S. M. (2009). A situational model of sexual assault prevention through bystander intervention. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 60(11-12), 779–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5
Cameron, C. A., Byers, E. S., Miller, S. A., McKay, S. L., St. Pierre, M. S., & Glenn, S. (2007). Dating violence prevention in New Brunswickl. Fredericton: Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Violence Research.
Carey, K. B., Norris, A. L., Durney, S. E., Shepardson, R. L., & Carey, M. P. (2018). Mental health consequences of sexual assault among first-year college women. Journal of American College Health, 66(6), 480-486. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1431915
Chabot, H. F., Gray, M. L., Makande, T. B., & Hoyt, R. L. (2018). Beyond Sex: Likelihood and Predictors of Effective and Ineffective Intervention in Intimate Partner Violence in Bystanders Perceiving an Emergency. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(12), 1909–1930. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515621064
Chabot, H. F., Tracy, T. L., Manning, C. A., & Poisson, C. A. (2009). Sex, attribution, and severity influence intervention decisions of informal helpers in domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(10), 1696-1713. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509331514
Cinquegrana, V., Baldry, A. C., & Pagliaro, S. (2018). Intimate partner violence and bystanders’ helping behaviour: An experimental study. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 10(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-08-2016-0243
Council of Europe (2011). Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (CETS No. 210). Retrieved November 27, 2023, from https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=210
Dabić, M., Tipurić, D., & Podrug, N. (2015). Cultural differences affecting decision-making style: a comparative study between four countries. Journal of Business Economics and Management, 16(2), 275-289. https://doi.org/10.3846/16111699.2013.859172
Davies, R. L., Rice, K., & Rock, A. J. (2023). A systematic review of informal supporters of intimate partner violence survivors: the intimate partner violence model of informal supporter readiness. PeerJ, 11, e15160. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.15160
Dumont, M., Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (2000). French adaptation of the general self-efficacy scale: Auto-efficacité généralisée. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from: userpage.fu-berlin.de/ health/french.htm
Edwards, K. M., Mattingly, M. J., Dixon, K. J., & Banyard, V. L. (2014). Community matters: Intimate partner violence among rural young adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(1-2), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9633-7
EIGE. (n.d.). What is gender-based violence? Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://eige.europa.eu/gender-based-violence/what-is-gender-based-violence
FBSP/Datafolha. (2023). Visível e Invisível: A Vitimização de Mulheres no Brasil - 4ª edição - 2023 [Visible and Invisible: Women’s Victimization in Brazil]. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://forumseguranca.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/visiveleinvisivel-2023-relatorio.pdf
Fedina, L., Holmes, J. L., & Backes, B. L. (2018). Campus sexual assault: A systematic review of prevalence research from 2000 to 2015. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(1), 76–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016631129
Fenton, R. A., & Mott, H. L. (2018). Evaluation of the intervention initiative: A bystander intervention program to prevent violence against women in Universities. Violence and Victims, 33(4), 645–662. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-16-00074
FRA. (2014). Violence against Women: An EU-Wide Survey. Main Results Report. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from: https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2014-vaw-survey-main-results-apr14_en.pdf
Franklin, C. A., Brady, P. Q., & Jurek, A. L. (2017). Responding to gendered violence among college students: The impact of participant characteristics on direct bystander intervention behavior. Journal of School Violence, 16(2), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1284450
ISTAT. (2015). La violenza contro le donne. Dentro e fuori la famiglia. Anno 2014 [Violence against women. Inside and outside the family. Year 2014]. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/161716
ISTAT. (2019). Gli stereotipi sui ruoli di genere e l’immagine sociale della violenza sessuale. Anno 2018. [Gender role stereotypes and the social image of sexual violence. Year 2018]. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.istat.it/it/files//2019/11/Report-stereotipi-di-genere.pdf
Jennings, W. G., Okeem, C., Piquero, A. R., Sellers, C. S., Theobald, D., & Farrington, D. P. (2017). Dating and intimate partner violence among young persons ages 15–30: Evidence from a systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 33, 107-125 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.007
Kamimura, A., Trinh, H. N., Nguyen, H., Yamawaki, N., Bhattacharya, H., Mo, W., Birkholz, R., Makomenaw, A., & Olson, L. M. (2016). Bystander Attitudes to Prevent Sexual Assault: A Study of College Students in the United States, Japan, India, Vietnam, and China. Journal of Sex Research, 53(9), 1131-1138. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1184605
Kania, R., & Cale, J. (2021). Preventing Sexual Violence Through Bystander Intervention: Attitudes, Behaviors, Missed Opportunities, and Barriers to Intervention Among Australian University Students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(5-6), 2816–2840. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518764395
Katz, J., Pazienza, R., Olin, R., & Rich, H. (2015). That’s what friends are for: Bystander responses to friends or strangers at risk for party rape victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(16), 2775–2792. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514554290
Kelly, J. G. (2006). Becoming ecological. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Lazarus, K., & Signal, T. (2013). Who will help in situations of intimate partner violence: Exploring personal attitudes and bystander behaviours. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 2, 199-209.
Lee, C., Bouchard, J., & Wong, J. S. (2023). A Popular Approach, but Do They Work? A Systematic Review of Social Marketing Campaigns to Prevent Sexual Violence on College Campuses. Violence Against Women, 29(3–4), 495–526. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221092476
Lisboa, T. K., & Zucco, L. P. (2022). Os 15 anos da Lei Maria da Penha. Revista Estudos Feministas, 30(2): e86982. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9584-2022v30n286982
Lyons, M., Brewer, G., Bogle, I., Castro Caicedo, J., Gaspar, M., Ghayda, C., Huelin, M., Wei Liang, T., & Centifanti, L. (2022). Barriers to Bystander Intervention in Sexual Harassment: The Dark Triad and Rape Myth acceptance in Indonesia, Singapore, and United Kingdom. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(23-24), NP22151–NP22174. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211072150
Mann, L., Burnett, P., Radford, M., & Ford, S. (1997). The Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire: An instrument for measuring patterns for coping with decisional conflict. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 10(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(199703)10:13.0.CO;2-X
McMahon, S. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American college health, 59(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.483715
McMahon, S., Palmer, J. E., Banyard, V., Murphy, M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2017). Measuring bystander behavior in the context of sexual violence prevention: Lessons learned and new directions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(16), 2396–2418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515591979
McMahon, S., Peterson, N. A., Winter, S. C., Palmer, J. E., Postmus, J. L., & Koenick, R. A. (2015). Predicting bystander behavior to prevent sexual assault on college campuses: The role of self-efficacy and intent. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56(1-2), 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9740-0
Mennicke, A., Bowling, J., Geiger, E., & Brewster, M. (2022a). Disclosure to friends or family and consequences after interpersonal violence: intersections of sexual identity and race. Journal of American College Health, 70(5), 1465-1475. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1806849
Mennicke, A., Coates, C. A., Jules, B., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2022b). Who do They Tell? College Students’ Formal and Informal Disclosure of Sexual Violence, Sexual Harassment, Stalking, and Dating Violence by Gender, Sexual Identity, and Race. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21–22), NP20092–NP20119. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211050107
Miles, J., & Shevlin, M. (2001). Applying regression and correlation: A guide for students and researchers. London: Sage.
Moschella-Smith, E.A., Potter, S.J. & Moynihan, M.M. (2022). Correlates of Bystander Intentions and Behavior among Community College Students in Situations of Sexual Violence. Journal of Prevention, 43, 277–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-021-00663-y
Mujal, G. N., Taylor, M. E., Fry, J. L., Gochez-Kerr, T. H., & Weaver, N. L. (2021). A systematic review of bystander interventions for the prevention of sexual violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(2), 381–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019849587
Nicksa, S. C. (2014). Bystander’s willingness to report theft, physical assault, and sexual assault: The impact of gender, anonymity, and relationship with the offender. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(2), 217–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505146
Niolon, P. H., Kearns, M., Dills, J., Rambo, K., Irving, S., Armstead, T., & Gilbert, L. (2017). Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Lifespan: A Technical Package of Programs, Policies, and Practices. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Nunes, R. Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1999). A escala de auto-eficàcia geral percepcionada. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from: userpage.fu-berlin.de/health/auto.htm
Papayiannis, S., & Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X. (2011). Cross-Cultural Studies. In S. Goldstein, & J.A. Naglieri (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development (pp. 438-440). Boston, MA. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_738
Peters, J. (2008). Measuring myths about domestic violence: Development and initial validation of the domestic violence myth acceptance scale. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 16(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801917780
Prezza, M., Pacilli, M. G., Barbaranelli, C., & Zampatti, E. (2009). The MTSOCS: A multidimensional sense of community scale for local communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 37(3), 305-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20297
Rosselli, A. (2014). The Policy on Gender Equality in Italy. European Parliament, Policy Department. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2014/493052/IPOL-FEMM_NT(2014)493052_EN.pdf
Sabina, C., & Straus, M. A. (2008). Polyvictimization by dating partners and mental health among college students. Violence and Victims, 23(6), 667–682. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.23.6.667
Schober, P., Boer, C., & Schwarte, L. A. (2018). Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation. Anesthesia & Analgesia, 126(5), 1763-1768. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000002864
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). NFER-NELSON.
Schwarzer, R. (2014). Everything you wanted to know about the general self-efficacy scale but were afraid to ask. Documentation of the General Self-Efficacy Scale, 1-11.
Shirwadkar, S. (2004). Canadian Domestic Violence Policy and Indian Immigrant Women. Violence Against Women, 10(8), 860–879. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204266310
Sibilia, L., Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Italian adaptation of the general self-efficacy: Self-efficacy generalizzata. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from: userpage.fu-berlin.de/health/italian.htm
Sinko, L., Burns, C. J., O'Halloran, S., & Saint Arnault, D. (2021). Trauma Recovery Is Cultural: Understanding Shared and Different Healing Themes in Irish and American Survivors of Gender-based Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13-14), NP7765–NP7790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519829284
Statistics Canada. (2019). Gender-based violence and unwanted sexual behaviour in Canada, 2018: Initial findings from the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2019001/article/00017-eng.htm
Statistics Canada. (2022). Victims of police-reported family and intimate partner violence in Canada, 2021. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221019/dq221019c-eng.htm
Stermac, L., Cripps, J., Amiri, T., & Badali, V. (2021). Academic engagement behaviours and attitudes among Canadian students reporting sexual violence. College Student Journal, 55(4), 387–398.
Sulkowski, M. L. (2011). An investigation of students’ willingness to report threats of violence in campus communities. Psychology of Violence, 1(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021592
Sylaska, K. M., & Edwards, K. M. (2014). Disclosure of Intimate Partner Violence to Informal Social Support Network Members A Review of the Literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(1), 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013496335
Tam, D. M., Dawson, M., Jackson, M., Kwok, S. M., & Thurston, W. E. (2013). Comparing criminal justice responses to violence against women in Canada and China. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 23(2), 106-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/02185385.2013.793020
Van Camp, T., Hébert, M., Guidi, E., Lavoie, F., Blais, M., & members of the PAJ Team (2014). Teens' Self-Efficacy to Deal with Dating Violence as Victim, Perpetrator or Bystander. International review of victimology, 20(3), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758014521741
Wang Y., Tang Y.-Y., & Wang J. (2015). Cultural Differences in Donation Decision-Making. PLoS ONE 10(9), e0138219. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138219
Weitzman, A., Cowan, S., & Walsh, K. (2020). Bystander interventions on behalf of sexual assault and intimate partner violence victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(7-8), 1694-1718. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517696873
WHO. (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women. Intimate partner violence. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-RHR-12.36
WHO. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564625
WHO. (2021). Violence against women prevalence estimates, 2018: global, regional and national prevalence estimates for intimate partner violence against women and global and regional prevalence estimates for non-partner sexual violence against women. Executive summary. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved May 20, 2023, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240026681
Wood, L., Voth Schrag, R., & Busch-Armendariz, N. (2020). Mental health and academic impacts of intimate partner violence among IHE-attending women. Journal of American college health, 68(3), 286-293. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1546710
World Economic Forum. (2022). Global Gender Gap Report 2022. INSIGHT REPORT JULY 2022. Cologny/Geneva Switzerland: World Economic Forum. Retrieved June 7, 2023, from https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2022/
Full Text: PDF
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
