From Loopholes to Deinstitutionalization: The Platform Economy and the Undermining of Labor and Social Security Institutions

Abstract

designs (2022), Become a designer, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://en.99designs.de/designers)

Ahrne, G., and N. Brunsson (2011), “Organization outside organizations: the significance of partial organization”, Organization, 18(1), pp. 83-104.

Ametowobla, D., and S. Kirchner (2022), “The organization of digital platforms: Architecture and interfaces in partial organization perspective”, Working Paper “Fachgebiet Digitalisierung der Arbeitswelt”, No. 04, Berlin: TU Berlin.

Arcidiacono, D., P. Borghi, and A. Ciarini (2019), “Platform Work: From Digital Promises to Labour Challenges”, Partecipazione e Conflitto, 12(3), pp. 611-628.

Beckmann, F, (2020), “Perceived Job Quality in German Minijobs. A Multidimensional Analysis of Work in Marginal Part-time Employment Relationships”, management revue, 31(2), pp. 116-144.

Beckmann, F., and F. Spohr (2022), Arbeitsmarkt und Arbeitsmarktpolitik: Grundlagen, Wandel, Zukunftsperspektiven. München: UVK.

Beckmann, F., Rolf G. Heinze, Dominik Schad, and Jürgen Schupp (2022), “From Hartz IV to Bürgergeld: Reform preferences of the long-term unemployed”, DIW Weekly Report – A policy bulletin from the German Institute for Economic Research 29+30+31, pp. 183-192.

Bäcker, G. (2021), “Gute Arbeit als Aufgabe einer vorsorgenden Sozialpolitik – Ein Überblick über Problemfelder und soziale Risiken der Erwerbsarbeit“, in U. Klammer, and A. Brettschneider (eds.), Vorbeugende Sozialpolitik: Ergebnisse und Impulse, Frankfurt/Main: Wochenschau Verlag, pp. 142-148.

Barbrook, R., and A. Cameron (1996), “The californian ideology”, Science as Culture, 6 (1), pp. 44-72.

Behrendt, C., Q.A. Nguyen, and U. Rani (2019), “Social protection systems and the future of work: Ensuring social security for digital platform workers” International Social Security Review, 72(3), pp. 17-41.

Berg, J. (2016), Income security in the on-demand economy: Findings and policy lessons from a survey of crowdworkers (Conditions of Work and Employment Series, 74), Brussels: International Labour Organization.

Berger, P. L., and T. Luckmann, (2009) [1966], Die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion der Wirklichkeit: Eine Theorie der Wissenssoziologie (22nd ed.), Frankfurt/Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag.

Bertschek, I., J. Ohnemus, and S. Viete (2016), Befragung zum sozioökonomischen Hintergrund und zu den Motiven von Crowdworkern: Endbericht zur Kurzexpertise für das Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales, Mannheim: Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung GmbH (ZEW).

Beyer, J. (2006), Pfadabhängigkeit: Über institutionelle Kontinuität, anfällige Stabilität und fundamentalen Wandel, Frankfurt am Main: Campus.

BMAS (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales) (2020a), Eckpunkte des BMAS - Faire Arbeit in der Plattformökonomie. Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.bmas.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2020/eckpunkte-faire-plattformarbeit.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1).

BMAS (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales) (2020b), Neue Arbeit fair gestalten. Eckpunkte des BMAS zu „Fairer Arbeit in der Plattformökonomie“. Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2020/eckpunkte-plattformoekonomie.html).

Bögenhold, D. (2019), “Are Hybrids the New Normal? A Labour Market Perspektive on Hybrid Self-employment”, International Review of Entrepreneurship, 17(4), pp. 44-67.

Bröckling, U. (2015), The Entrepreneurail Self. Fabricating a New Type of Subject, London: Sage Publishing.

Busemeyer, M.R., A. Kemmerling, P. Marx, and K. van Kersbergen (eds.) (2022a), Digitalization and the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Busemeyer, M.R., A. Kemmerling, P. Marx, and K. van Kersbergen (2022b), “Digitalization and the Future of the Democratic Welfare State”, in: M. R. Busemeyer, A. Kemmerling, P. Marx, and K. van Kersbergen (eds.), Digitalization and the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 373-392.

Chesalina, O. (2021), “Platform Work: Critical Assessment of Empirical Findings and its Implications for Social Security”, in U. Becker, and O. Chesalina (eds.), Social Law 4.0: New Approaches for Ensuring and Financing Social Security in the Digital Age, Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 39-72.

Conen, W., and J. Schippers (2019), “Self-employment: between freedom and insecurity”, in W. Conen, and J. Schippers (eds.), Self-Employment as Precarious Work, Cheltenham, UK; Northhampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 1-21.

Conran, J. and K. Thelen (2016), “Institutional Change”, in: O. Fioretos, T.G. Fallettí, and A. Sheingate (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Historical Institutionalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 51-70.

Crowd Guru (2022), WIE DU GURU WIRST, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.crowdguru.de/guru-werden/)

Dolata, U. (2019a), “Privatization, curation, commodification”, Österreichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 44(1), pp. 181-197.

Dolata, U. (2019b). “Plattform-Regulierung. Koordination von Märkten und Kuratierung von Sozialität im Internet”, Berliner Journal Für Soziologie, 29, pp. 179-206.

Drahokoupil, J. (2021), “The business models of labour platforms: creating an uncertain future”, in J. Drahokoupil, and K. Vandaele (eds.), A Modern Guide to Labour and the Platform Economy. Cheltenham, UK; Northhampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 33-48.

Drahokoupil, J., and K. Vandaele, K. (2021), “Introduction: Janus meets Proteus in the platf orm economy”, in J. Drahokoupil and. K. Vandaele (eds.), A Modern Guide to Labour and the Platform Economy. Cheltenham, UK; Northhampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 1-31.

Duggan, J., U. Sherman, R. Carbery, and A. McDonnell (2020), “Algorithmic management and app‐work in the gig economy: A research agenda for employment relations and HRM”, Human Resource Management Journal, 30(1), pp. 114-132.

Eichhorst, W., and U. Rinne (2017), Digital Challenges for the Welfare State. IZA Policy Paper No. 134. Bonn: Institute of Labor Economics.

European Commission (2021), Proposal for DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on improving working conditions in platform work, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-register/api/files/COM(2021)762_0/090166e5e6120bbe?rendition=false).

Esping-Andersen, G. (1990), The three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Esping‐Andersen, G. (2004), “Towards the Good Society, Once Again?”, in G. Esping‐Andersen, D. Gallie, A. Hemerijck, and J. Myles (eds.), Why We Need a New Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-25.

Expertcloud (2022), Häufig gestellte Fragen, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.expertcloud.info/faqs/)

Forde, C., M. Stuart, S. Joyce, L. Oliver, D. Valizade, G. Alberti, K. Hardy, V. Trappmann, C. Umney, and C. Carson (2017), The Social Protection of Workers in the Platform Economy. Brussels: Publications Office of the European Union.

Funke, C., and G. Picot (2021), “Platform work in a Coordinated Market Economy”, Industrial Relations Journal, 52(4), pp. 348-363.

Garben, S. (2021), “The regulation of platform work in the European Union: Mapping the challenges”, in J. Drahokoupil & K. Vandaele (Eds.), A Modern Guide to Labour and the Platform Economy. Cheltenham, UK; Northhampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 145-161.

Gerber, C. (2022), “Gender and precarity in platform work: Old inequalities in the new world of work”, New Technology, Work and Employment, 37(2), pp. 206-230.

Giddens, A. (1984), The Constitution of Society, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Göhler, G. (1997a), “Wie verändern sich Institutionen? Revolutionärer und schleichender Institutionenwandel”, in: G. Göhler (ed.): Institutionenwandel (Leviathan Sonderheft 16), Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, pp. 21-56.

Göhler, G. (ed. 1997b), Institutionenwandel. Leviathan Sonderheft 16, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.

Grabher, G., and van Tuijl, E. (2020), “Uber -production: From global networks to digital platforms” Environment and Planning a: Economy and Space 52(5), pp. 1005-1016.

Groen, W. P. de, Z. Kilhoffer, L. Westhoff, D. Postica, and F. Shamsfakhr (2021), Digital labour platforms in the EU: Mapping and business models. Final Report, Luxembourg: CEPS.

Haidar, J., and M. Keune (2021), “Work and Labour Relations in Global Platform Capitalism”, in J. Haidar, and M. Keune (eds.), ILERA Publication series. Work and labour relations in global platform capitalism, Edward Elgar: ILO, pp. 1-27.

Hassel, A., and C. Schiller (2010), Der Fall Hartz IV. Wie es zur Agenda 2010 kam und wie es weitergeht, Frankfurt/Main: Campus.

Heinze, R. G., J. Schmid, and C. Strünck (eds. 1999), Vom Wohlfahrtsstaat zum Wettbewerbsstaat: Arbeitsmarkt- und Sozialpolitik in den 90er Jahren, Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

Heinze, R.G., and J. Schupp (2022), Grundeinkommen – Von der Vision zur schleichenden sozialstaatlichen Transformation, Wiesbaden: VS.

Heiland, H. (2021), “Controlling space, controlling labour? Contested space in food delivery gig work”, New Technology, Work and Employment, 36 (1), pp. 1-16.

Helpling (2022), FAQs. Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.helpling.de/de_en/anmelden)

Hoose, F., T. Haipeter, and P. Ittermann (2019), “Digitalisierung der Arbeit und Interessenvertretungen”, Arbeit, 28 (4), pp. 423-444.

Hoose, F., and T. Haipeter (2021), “Individualisierte Plattformarbeit und kollektive Interessenartikulation“, in T. Haipeter, F. Hoose, and S. Rosenbohm (eds.), Arbeitspolitik in digitalen Zeiten: Entwicklungslinien einer nachhaltigen Regulierung und Gestaltung von Arbeit, Banden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 143-178.

Hoose, F., and S. Rosenbohm (2022), “Tension between autonomy and dependency: insights into platform work of professional (video)bloggers”, Work in the Global Economy, 2 (1), pp. 88-108.

Hünefeld, L., S.-C. Meyer, and N. Backhaus (2021), “Digitalization of Employment: Working via Online Platforms”, in C. Korunka (ed.), Flexible Working Practices and Approaches: Psychological and Social Implications, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 167-190.

ILO (International Labour Office) (2021), World Employment and Social Outlook: The role of digital labour platforms in transforming the world of work (ILO Flagship Report), Geneva: International Labour Office.

Joyce, S., M. Stuart, C. Forde, and D. Valizade (2019), “Work and Social Protection in the Platform Economy in Europe”, Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations, 25, pp. 153-184.

Kalina, T., and C. Weinkopf (2021), “Niedriglohnbeschäftigung 2019 – deutlicher Rückgang in Ostdeutschland”, IAQ-Report 06/2021, Duisburg: IAQ.

Kalleberg, A. L. (2018), Precarious Lives: Job Insecurity and Well-Being in Rich Democracies. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Kenney, M., and J. Zysman (2019), “Work and Value Creation in the Platform Economy”, in S. P. Vallas, and A. Kovalainen (eds.), Research in the sociology of work. Work and Labor in the Digital Age (2019th ed.), Bingeley: Emerald Publishing, pp. 13-41.

Kervégan, J.-F., C. Schmidt, and B. Zabel (2021), “Institutionen und die paradoxen Ansprüche der Moderne”, Trivium. Revue franco-allemande de sciences humaines et sociales - Deutsch-französische Zeitschrift für Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften 32 (https://doi.org/10.4000/trivium.7287).

Kirchner, S. (2021), “Kommt jetzt die Plattformgesellschaft? Grundlagen, Organisationen und Perspektiven in der digitalen Transformation”, Working Paper Fachgebiet Digitalisierung der Arbeitswelt, No. 03, Berlin: TU Berlin.

Kirchner, S., and J. Beyer (2016), “Die Plattformlogik als digitale Marktordnung”, Zeitschrift Für Soziologie, 45(5), pp. 324-339.

Klinger, S., and E. Weber (2019), “Deutschland – Nebenjobberland”, WSI-Mitteilungen, 4/2019, pp. 247-259.

Kocher, E. (2022), Digital Work Platforms at the Interface of Labour Law: Regulating Market Organisers, New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Kool, T. A., G. Bordon, and F. Gassmann (2021), “Access to social protection for platform and other non-standard workers: A literature review”, UNU-MERIT Working Papers, Maastricht: Maastricht Economic and social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT).

Koutsimpogiorgos, N., J. van Slageren, A. M. Herrmann, and K. Frenken (2020), “Conceptualizing the Gig Economy and its Regulatory Problems”, Policy & Internet, 12(4), pp. 525-545.

Kovalainen, A., S. P. Vallas, and S. Poutanen (2019), “Theorizing Work in the Contemporary Platform Economy”, in S. Poutanen, A. Kovalainen, and P. Rouvinen (eds.), Digital Work and the Platform Economy: Understanding Tasks, Skills, and Capabilities in the New Era. New York: Routledge, pp. 31-55.

Krzywdzinski, M., and C. Gerber (2020), “Varieties of platform work: Platforms and social inequality in Germany and the United States”, Weizenbaum Series, No. 7. Berlin: Weizenbaum Institute for the Networked Society.

Leimeister, J. M., D. Durward, and S. Zogaj (2016), Crowd Worker in Deutschland: Eine empirische Studie zum Arbeitsumfeld auf externen Crowdsourcing-Plattformen, Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

Lepsius, M. R. (1990), Interessen, Ideen und Institutionen, Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.

Lessenich, S. (2003), “Soziale Subjektivität. Die neue Regierung der Gesellschaft”, Mittelweg 36, 12 (4), pp. 80‐93.

Mahoney, J., and K. Thelen (2010), “A Theory of Gradual Institutional Change”, in: J. Mahoney, and K. Thelen (eds.), Explaining institutional change. Ambiguity, agency, and power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-37.

Malt (2022), About us, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://en.malt.de/about/who-is-malt)

Mandl, I. (2021), “Plattformarbeit: nicht alles ist schlecht! ”, in J. Muckenhuber, M. Griesbacher, J. Hödl, and L. Zilian (eds.), Disruption der Arbeit? Zu den Folgen der Digitalisierung im Dienstleistungssektor, Frankfurt/Main: Campus, pp. 134-146.

Mau, S. (2004), “Welfare Regimes and the Norms of Social Exchange”, Current Sociology, 52 (1): 53-74.

Meijerink, J., G. Jansen, and V. Daskalova (2021), “Platform economy puzzles: the need for a multidisciplinary perspective on gig work”, in J. Meijerink, G. Jansen, and V. Daskalova (eds.), Platform Economy Puzzles: A Multidisciplinary Perspective on Gig Work, Cheltenham, UK; Northhampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 2-18.

Montgomery, T., and S. Baglioni (2021), “Defining the gig economy: platform capitalism and the reinvention of precarious work”, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 41(9/10), pp. 1012-1025.

Newlands, G. (2022), “‘This isn’t forever for me’: Perceived employability and migrant gig work in Norway and Sweden”, Environment and Planning a: Economy and Space, March 2022.

Norlander, P., N. Jukic, A. Varma, and S. Nestorov (2021), “The effects of technological supervision on gig workers: organizational control and motivation of Uber, taxi, and limousine drivers”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 32(19), pp. 4053-4077.

Nullmeier, F. (2022), “The Structural Adaptability of Bismarckian Social Insurance Systems in the Digital Age”, in: M.R. Busemeyer, A. Kemmerling, P. Marx, and K. van Kersbergen (eds.), Digitalization and the Welfare State, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 290-303.

OECD (2018), The Future of Social Protection: What Works for Non-standard Workers?, Paris: OECD Publishing.

Oei, Shu-Yi (2018), “The Trouble with Gig Talk: Choice of Narrative and the Worker Classification Fights”, Law and Contemporary Problems, 81, pp. 107-136.

Oliver, C. (1992), “The antecedents of deinstitutionalization”, Organization Studies, 13, pp. 563-588.

Pempel, T.J. (1998), Regime Shift: Comparative Dynamics of the Japanese Political Economy, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Pesole, A., E. Fernández-Macías, C. Urzí Brancati, and E. Gómez Herrera (2019), “How to quantify what is not seen? Two proposals for measuring platform work”, JRC Working Papers Series on Labour, Education and Technology, 2019/01, Seville: European Commission.

Piasna, A., W. Zwysen, and J. Drahokoupil, J. (2022), “The platform economy in Europe: Results from the second ETUI Internet and Platform Work Survey”, European trade union institute Working Paper, No. 2022.05. Brussels: etui.

Polkowska, D. (2019), “Does the App Contribute to the Precarization of Work? The Case of Uber Drivers in Poland”, Partecipazione e Conflitto, 12(3), pp. 717-741.

Pries, L. (1998). “"Arbeitsmarkt" und "erwerbsstrukturierende Institutionen". Theoretische Überlegungen zu einer Erwerbssoziologie”, Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, 50(1), pp. 159-175.

Rani, U., and M. Furrer (2020), “Digital labour platforms and new forms of flexible work in developing countries: Algorithmic management of work and workers”, Competition & Change, 25(2), pp. 212-236.

Riedmüller, B., and T. Olk (eds. 1994). Grenzen des Sozialversicherungsstaates. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.

Rosenblat, A. (2018), Uberland: How algorithms are rewriting the rules of work. Oakland: University of California Press.

Sanchez-Cartas, J. M., and G. León (2021), “Multisided Platforms and Markets: A Survey of the Theoretical Literature”, Journal of Economic Surveys, 35(2), pp. 452-487.

Schiller, D. (2016), “Labor and Digital Capitalism”, in R. Maxwell (ed.), The Routledge companion to labor and media, New York: Routledge, pp. 3-17.

Scholz, T. (2016), Platform cooperativism: Challeging the Corporate Sharing Economy, New York: Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung, New York Office.

Scholz, T. (2017), Uberworked and underpaid: How workers are disrupting the digital economy, Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press.

Schönefeld, D., and I. Hensel (2019), “Autonomie und Kontrolle - Crowdworking "im Dazwischen": Einführung in den Sammelband”, in I. Hensel, D. Schönefeld, E. Kocher, A. Schwarz, and J. Koch (eds.), Selbstständige Unselbstständigkeit: Crowdworking zwischen Autonomie und Kontrolle, Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 11-39.

Schor, J. B. (2020), After the Gig. How the Sharing Economy got Hijacked and how to win it back, Oakland: University of California Press.

Schor, J. B., W. Attwood-Charles, M. Cansoy, I. Ladegaard, and R. Wengronowitz (2020), “Dependence and precarity in the platform economy”, Theory and Society, 49, pp. 833-861.

Schuler-Harms, M., and K. Goldberg (2019), “Soziale Absicherung von alter und neuer Selbstständigkeit als Herausforderung für das Sozialrecht”, in D. Alewell, and W. Matiaske (eds.), Standards guter Arbeit. Disziplinäre Positionen und interdisziplinäre Perspektiven, Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 189-212.

Schulze Buschoff, K. (2016), “Solo-Selbstständigkeit in Deutschland”, WSI Policy Brief, No. 4, Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut.

Schüßler, E., W. Attwood-Charles, S. Kirchner, and J. B. Schor (2021), “Between mutuality, autonomy and domination: rethinking digital platforms as contested relational structures”, Socio-Economic Review, 19(4), pp. 1217-1243.

Scott, W. R. (2014), Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests and identities (4th ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

Serfling, O. (2019), Crowdworking Monitor No. 2. Kleve: CIVEY; Hochschule Rhein-Waal.

Shibata, S. (2020), “Gig Work and the Discourse of Autonomy: Fictitious Freedom in Japan’s Digital Economy”, New Political Economy, 25 (4), pp. 535-551.

Spohr, F. (2016), Explaining Path Dependency and Deviation by Combining Multiple Streams Framework and Historical Institutionalism: A Comparative Analysis of German and Swedish Labor Market Policies. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 18(3), pp. 257-272.

Srnicek, N. (2017). Platform capitalism, Cambridge, UK; Malden, MA: Polity Press.

Staab, P. (2019), Digitaler Kapitalismus: Markt und Herrschaft in der Ökonomie der Unknappheit, Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp.

Stanford, J. (2017), “The resurgence of gig work: Historical and theoretical perspectives”, The Economic and Labour Relations Review, 28(3), pp. 382-401.

Streeck, W., and K. Thelen (2005b), “Introduction: Institutional change in advanced political economies”, in W. Streeck, and K. Thelen (eds.), Beyond continuity: Institutional change in advanced political economies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 1-39.

Streeck, W., and K. Thelen (eds.) (2005a), Beyond continuity: Institutional change in advanced political economies, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sydow, J., and M. Helfen (2020), “Work and Employment in Fluid Organizational Forms”, in B. J. Hoffman, M. K. Shoss, and L. A. Wegman (eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the changing nature of work, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 214-236.

TextMaster (2022), Nutzungsbedingungen. Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://de.textmaster.com/uebersetzer-redakteur/nutzungsbedingungen-textmaster/)

Thelen, K. (2018), “Regulating Uber: The Politics of the Platform Economy in Europe and the United States”, Perspectives on Politics, 16(4), pp. 938-953.

Twago (2022), FAQ. Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.twago.de/blog/faq/)

Urzí Brancati, C., A. Pesole, and E. Fernández-Macías (2020), New evidence on platform workers in Europe: Results from the second COLLEEM survey (JRC science for policy report), Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

uTest (2022), The Largest Community of Testers in the World, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://utest.com/)

Vandaele, K. (2021), “Collective resistance and organizational creativity amongst Europe’s platform workers: a new power in the labour movement?”, in J. Haidar, and M. Keune (eds.), Work and labour relations in global platform capitalism. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 206-235.

Weber, E. (2019), “Digital social security: Outline of a concept for the 21st century”, Working paper Forschungsförderung 138, Düsseldorf: Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.

Wood, A.J., M. Graham, V. Lehdonvirta, and I. Hjorth (2019), “Networked but Commodified: The (Dis)Embededdeness of Digital Labour in the Gig Economy”, Sociology, 53 (5), pp. 931-950.

WorkGenius (2022), How it works, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.workgenius.com/en-us/how-it-works/)

Zenjob (2022), FAQ, Retrieved September 23, 2022 (https://www.zenjob.com/uk/jobs/)